Trans fat: Summaries of and links to the literature
Hu FB et al. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1491–1499.
Data from the Nurses Health Study, a landmark study that followed more than 80,000 women for 14 years, were used prospectively to examine the effect of replacing 1% of daily energy from carbohydrates with each of the fatty acids. Results showed that trans fats are by far the most deleterious of the fatty acids in terms of increasing cardiovascular risk. Available here
Mozaffarian D et al. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1601–1613.
This review of in vitro experimental studies, dietary trials, and observational studies found this: “On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CHD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3 percent of total energy intake).” Excerpt available here
Mensink RP, Katan MB. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:439–445.
This seminal paper was one of the earliest to discover the deleterious effects of trans fats, finding they not only increased “bad” LDL cholesterol, but also reduced “good” HDL cholesterol and these effects were statistically significant (P<0.0001). Abstract available here
Hayes KC. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr. 2002;11(suppl):S394–S400.
The lead investigator for the research underpinning the Smart Balance® blend, Dr. Hayes found this: “Between dietary fat intakes of 20–40% en [kcal], the ideal balance would seem to approximate 1:1.3:1 for SFA : MUFA : PUFA.” Available here
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, 2002.
This letter on dietary reference intakes for trans fatty acids served as the basis for the US Food and Drug Administration’s restrictions on trans fats saying that consumption should be as low as possible while maintaining a nutritionally adequate diet. Available here
Stender S et al. N Engl J Med. 2009:361:314–316.
This letter reports on ongoing data showing that trans fatty acids can be replaced with a mixture of saturated and both mono- and polyunsaturated fats, and provides a rationale for why this composition is beneficial. Available here
Stender S et al. J. Food Nutr Res. 2008. DOI:10.3402/fnr.v52i0.1651.
Comparison of health aspects of ruminant fat vs commercially produced trans fats from hydrogenation. Abstract available here
Tarrago-Trani M et al. J Am Diet Assoc. 2006;106:867–880.
An overview of trans fats along with a comprehensive review of newly formulated products and current procedures practiced by the food industry to reduce or eliminate trans fats. Abstract available here
Van Horn L et al. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:287–331.
A comprehensive and systematic review of the evidence for key dietary factors and their associated risk of cardiovascular disease. Abstract available here
Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:1599–1611. Available here
Eckel RH et al. American Heart Association Trans Fat Conference 2006: report of the Trans Fat Conference Planning Group. Circulation. 2008;115:2231–2246. Available here